How learning happens

Teachers choose explicit teaching strategies based on their knowledge of how learning happens.

Cognitive load theory

Cognitive load theory has significant implications for teaching practice. It is built upon two commonly accepted ideas.

There is a limit to how much new information the human brain can process at one time in working memory
There are no known limits to how much information can be stored in long-term memory.

Understanding cognitive load theory enables instructional decisions that best support students using their working memory to process information and store learning in long-term memory (CESE 2017).

A diagram of a balance with When information is very complex or new it is important that teachers reduce the load on students working memories as much as possible to maximise learning on one side and When information is easy for students to understand, teachers can gradually increase the complexity of the lesson to maximise students learning on the other. — Image: Figure 1 Preventing cognitive overload – image adapted from Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE) (2018) Cognitive load theory in practice: examples for the classroom.

Image adapted from Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE) (2018) Cognitive load theory in practice: examples for the classroom.

Memory systems

Explicit teaching optimises the two types of memory that are important for learning.

Working memory is where we hold small amounts of information for a very short time.
Long-term memory is where large amounts of information are stored semi-permanently – information that is not practised and consolidated becomes harder to remember and, over time, can be forgotten.

Video – How learning happens (4:10)

Understanding cognitive learning theories is key to effective teaching.

This animation explains how we process, remember, and retrieve information through cognitive models. This animation can be used:

to discuss how students learn and how it can be applied for lesson design
to support professional development on cognitive learning theories
to develop a shared understanding of attention, working memory, cognitive overload, and long-term memory.

Watch 'How learning happens' (4:10).

Understanding how learning happens helps us make decisions about how we teach our students.

Transcript of How learning happens

Speaker

[Text on screen: How learning happens]

Understanding theories of learning is important in making decisions about how we teach our students.

This video will explore cognitive models of learning. Cognitive models of learning offer explanations about how we process ‘information’, how we remember, and how we retrieve knowledge, skills and experiences.

This will include a focus on:

Attention and its role when we encounter new information
Working memory and its limitations
Cognitive overload and how this can prevent learning being successful
And Long-term memory including the role of encoding and retrieval.

Firstly, let's explore the role of attention when we encounter new information. Cognitive models propose that learning starts when we focus our attention on something.

Attention is a finite cognitive resource that we use to bring information into our working memory and then hold it there.

A classroom is like a stage where there is lots happening at once. Attention is the spotlight - what our students direct the spotlight on is what they can bring in and hold in working memory.

Sometimes there are things that compete for student attention. This can make the spotlight shift away from what they are trying to learn and makes it more likely they won't learn as effectively.

[Screen shows: a spotlight moving about the classroom shifting focus from the teacher to distractions in the class, such as a flying paper airplane and random musical notes.]

We need to keep the spotlight steady to hold information in working memory. This is because working memory is very limited - it holds and processes small amounts of information for a short time.

You might think of working memory as a workbench in your mind. It’s where your brain temporarily puts information while you’re learning or solving problems. But the bench isn’t very big — you can only fit a few ideas at a time. If you are relying on this workbench to process too much information, pieces of that information are going to be dropped. This is referred to as cognitive overload.

Cognitive overload happens when the amount of information we’re working with exceeds the capacity of our working memory.

Cognitive overload slows learning down and increases the chance of misunderstandings, misinterpretations or confusion, so it’s an important consideration as we design learning for our students.

Other important considerations are the role of encoding, schemas, and long-term memory.

When we encounter new information, we need to encode it, so that it enters our long-term memory.

Unlike our working memory, which has limited capacity, the amount of information that can be held in long term memory is potentially limitless. Knowledge is stored in our long-term memory in networks known as schemas.

Schemas are organised networks of related knowledge, a bit like an internal mind map. Schemas make it easier to remember and apply what has been learned.

[Screen shows: image of a map of Australia with dotted connected lines to two native animals].

The more we learn, the more complex schemas become.

[Screen shows: more native animals are connected to the map of Australia as well as the word ‘mammal’]

This is critical as we become more confident and knowledgeable learners. Having sound schemas makes it easier to remember, use and apply what’s been learnt.

Although information can potentially be stored in long-term memory forever, we need to be able to bring it back into our working memory when we need it. When we’re prompted and are able to recall information, this process is known as retrieval. Every time information is retrieved, it enters working memory where connections to new or other previously learnt information can be made or strengthened and then encoded back into long-term memory.

[Screen shows: previously formed schema moving from long term memory to working memory, where another native mammal is added. The newly-connected schema then returns from working memory to long term memory, where it is consolidated.]

Providing regular opportunities to successfully retrieve information can helps students build durable knowledge—making future learning easier.

This is what we want for our students – we want them to learn with confidence, accuracy, and efficiency. We want them to be highly successful learners.

Understanding cognitive models of learning can be useful as we plan, lead and evaluate learning experiences, and seek to optimise learning for every student in every classroom.

[End of transcript]

Moving from working memory to long-term memory

Explicit teaching helps students move learning from working memory to long-term memory.

Understanding the role of working memory in learning informs teachers’ selection of teaching strategies (AERO 2023a). Teachers must consider the capacity of students’ working memory. Humans can hold a lot of knowledge in long-term memory but only a few pieces of information can be held in working memory and only for a short period of time. This is true for all learners of all ages and abilities. Explicit teaching strategies such as chunking address working memory limitations (AERO 2023b).

For example, when students are first learning about atoms the teacher presents them with the first few ‘chunks’ of learning about the concept of an atom. For instance, they are very small, have a nucleus in the centre and electrons orbiting that nucleus. Initially those separate ideas about an atom each take up a space in the working memory. Once students have combined these ideas into a mental model of an atom, that model, or schema, only occupies one space in the working memory. New information about atoms (example, protons and neutrons are in the nucleus) can be added to the free spaces in working memory. As connections in learning are made, these new ideas will be incorporated into the student’s schema about atoms.

This image describes when students are first learning about atoms the teacher presents them with the first few chunks of learning about the concept of an atom. For instance, they are very small, have a nucleus in the centre and electrons orbiting that nucleus. Initially those separate ideas about an atom each take up a space in the working memory. Once students have combined these ideas into a mental model of an atom, that model, or schema, only occupies one space in the working memory. New information about atoms, for example, protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, can be added to the free spaces in working memory. As connections in learning are made, these new ideas will be incorporated into the students schema about atoms. — Image: Figure 2 Managing cognitive load by chunking information.

Image adapted from Australian Education Research Organisation Limited (AERO) (2023) Explicit instruction and licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Practice and retrieval

Explicit teaching encourages students to practice and retrieve prior learning.

New information is processed in working memory and encoded in long-term memory for later retrieval (AERO 2023c). When previous learning is retrieved, it returns into working memory where connections to new or other previously learnt information can be made or strengthened. This helps students retain learning and add complexity to their existing skills knowledge and understanding.

The image shows the process of encoding, where new information and prior knowledge combine in working memory and are stored in long-term memory. It also shows the process of retrieval, where knowledge is recalled from long-term memory and actively used. — Image: Figure 3 Transferring information from working memory to long-term memory for later retrieval.

Building schemas

Explicit teaching provides students with well sequenced learning that helps them to create well organised and accurate schemas.

The brain stores knowledge in schemas by linking new information to existing knowledge. This is why teachers ask students to recall prior knowledge before introducing new learning. Using memory retrieval practices supports students to build strong knowledge schemas. These practices should be used at the beginning, during and at the end of learning sessions. Students can then use these schemas in generative learning activities (CESE 2017).

Explicit teaching