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Explicit teaching

How learning happens

Teachers choose explicit teaching strategies based on their knowledge of how learning happens.

Cognitive load theory

Cognitive load theory has significant implications for teaching practice. It is built upon two commonly accepted ideas.

  1. There is a limit to how much new information the human brain can process at one time in working memory
  2. There are no known limits to how much information can be stored in long-term memory.

Understanding cognitive load theory enables instructional decisions that best support students using their working memory to process information and store learning in long-term memory (CESE 2017).

A diagram of a balance with When information is very complex or new it is important that teachers reduce the load on students working memories as much as possible to maximise learning on one side and When information is easy for students to understand, teachers can gradually increase the complexity of the lesson to maximise students learning on the other. A diagram of a balance with When information is very complex or new it is important that teachers reduce the load on students working memories as much as possible to maximise learning on one side and When information is easy for students to understand, teachers can gradually increase the complexity of the lesson to maximise students learning on the other.
Image: Figure 1 Preventing cognitive overload – image adapted from Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE) (2018) Cognitive load theory in practice: examples for the classroom.

Image adapted from Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE) (2018) Cognitive load theory in practice: examples for the classroom.

Memory systems

Explicit teaching optimises the two types of memory that are important for learning.

  1. Working memory is where we hold small amounts of information for a very short time.
  2. Long-term memory is where large amounts of information are stored semi-permanently – information that is not practised and consolidated becomes harder to remember and, over time, can be forgotten.

Moving from working memory to long-term memory

Explicit teaching helps students move learning from working memory to long-term memory.

Understanding the role of working memory in learning informs teachers’ selection of teaching strategies (AERO 2023a). Teachers must consider the capacity of students’ working memory. Humans can hold a lot of knowledge in long-term memory but only a few pieces of information can be held in working memory and only for a short period of time. This is true for all learners of all ages and abilities. Explicit teaching strategies such as chunking address working memory limitations (AERO 2023b).

For example, when students are first learning about atoms the teacher presents them with the first few ‘chunks’ of learning about the concept of an atom. For instance, they are very small, have a nucleus in the centre and electrons orbiting that nucleus. Initially those separate ideas about an atom each take up a space in the working memory. Once students have combined these ideas into a mental model of an atom, that model, or schema, only occupies one space in the working memory. New information about atoms (example, protons and neutrons are in the nucleus) can be added to the free spaces in working memory. As connections in learning are made, these new ideas will be incorporated into the student’s schema about atoms.

This image describes when students are first learning about atoms the teacher presents them with the first few chunks of learning about the concept of an atom. For instance, they are very small, have a nucleus in the centre and electrons orbiting that nucleus. Initially those separate ideas about an atom each take up a space in the working memory. Once students have combined these ideas into a mental model of an atom, that model, or schema, only occupies one space in the working memory. New information about atoms, for example, protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, can be added to the free spaces in working memory. As connections in learning are made, these new ideas will be incorporated into the students schema about atoms. This image describes when students are first learning about atoms the teacher presents them with the first few chunks of learning about the concept of an atom. For instance, they are very small, have a nucleus in the centre and electrons orbiting that nucleus. Initially those separate ideas about an atom each take up a space in the working memory. Once students have combined these ideas into a mental model of an atom, that model, or schema, only occupies one space in the working memory. New information about atoms, for example, protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, can be added to the free spaces in working memory. As connections in learning are made, these new ideas will be incorporated into the students schema about atoms.
Image: Figure 2 Managing cognitive load by chunking information.

Image adapted from Australian Education Research Organisation Limited (AERO) (2023) Explicit instruction and licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Practice and retrieval

Explicit teaching encourages students to practice and retrieve prior learning.

New information is processed in working memory and encoded in long-term memory for later retrieval (AERO 2023c). When previous learning is retrieved, it returns into working memory where connections to new or other previously learnt information can be made or strengthened. This helps students retain learning and add complexity to their existing skills knowledge and understanding.

The image shows the process of encoding, where new information and prior knowledge combine in working memory and are stored in long-term memory. It also shows the process of retrieval, where knowledge is recalled from long-term memory and actively used. The image shows the process of encoding, where new information and prior knowledge combine in working memory and are stored in long-term memory. It also shows the process of retrieval, where knowledge is recalled from long-term memory and actively used.
Image: Figure 3 Transferring information from working memory to long-term memory for later retrieval.

Image adapted from Australian Education Research Organisation Limited (AERO) (2023) How students learn best and licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Building schemas

Explicit teaching provides students with well sequenced learning that helps them to create well organised and accurate schemas.

The brain stores knowledge in schemas by linking new information to existing knowledge. This is why teachers ask students to recall prior knowledge before introducing new learning. Using memory retrieval practices supports students to build strong knowledge schemas. These practices should be used at the beginning, during and at the end of learning sessions. Students can then use these schemas in generative learning activities (CESE 2017).

Further reading

AERO (Australian Education Research Organisation) (2023c), How students learn best: An overview of the evidence, AERO, accessed 16 April 2024.

AERO (Australian Education Research Organisation) (2023b) Knowledge is central to learning, AERO, accessed 16 April 2024.

AERO (Australian Education Research Organisation) (2023a) Managing cognitive load optimises learning, AERO, accessed 16 April 2024.

CESE (Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation) (2017) Cognitive load theory: Research that teachers really need to understand, CESE, accessed 16 April 2024.

Category:

  • Teaching and learning

Business Unit:

  • Curriculum and Reform
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